Webers View on Modern Society

Webers View on Modern Society Discuss the Characteristics of Modern Society According to Weber Introduction What is known as classical sociology is found in the work of Comte, Durkheim, Marx and Weber. Weber and the other classicists attempted to explain the origins of modern industrial society and the elements that worked both for and against it. Like Comte and Durkheim Weber believed that scientific and technological advances would do away with humanity’s need of religion. Old ideas of magic would disappear and the world would become ‘disenchanted’ and society would become increasingly rational. Beginning with the distinction between rationality and rationalisation, his paper will discuss the characteristics of modern society according to Weber. Rationality and Rationalisation Rationality, in Weber’s thought refers to social actions being the result of a rational process of the calculation of the means and ends of actions. Rationalisation on the other hand refers to an overall historical process whereby scientific knowledge and rational action come to dominate social reality (Morrison, 1995).[1] Modern Society and Conflict Weber is noted for his historical grasp of the political, legal, economic, and religious development of modern western societies (Morrison, 1995).[2] He was concerned interested in issues of power and conflict in society, the different interest groups in society implied that state institutions were necessary if order was to be maintained. As legislation increased, however, the administration would be less effective. He rejected Marx’s materialist view of history and did not agree with Marx on the importance of class conflict. In Weber’s view class was just one type of inequality among many others (Giddens, 2001).[3] Sociology, Weber believed, should concentrate more on social action and less on social structure. It was his contention that Marx had laid too much stress on economics. Capitalism was only one factor in the shaping of modern societies, Weber held that culture and politics deserved equal consideration. The inter-connectedness of social spheres, Weber believed , was a key factor for understanding the development of modern society (Marsh, 2000). According to Turner (1999) humanity’s place in modern society was problematic for Weber because he believed that human beings were alienated from themselves and the world in which they lived. Weber did not believe, as did Durkheim and Marx, that structures had an independent existence from individuals. Rather he maintained that structures were a result of a complex interplay of human action. Thus Weber argued that social change came about as the result of human motivation and ideas, and that these were powerful agents of the transformation of societies (Giddens, 2001).Although Weber was an atheist he believed that religion influenced people’s ideas and practices and that this had an effect in the world. Weber did not believe, as did Marx, that capitalism came about as a result of greed. Nor did he agree with Marx that it was the result of class conflict, rather it was due to an emphasis on science and the bureaucracy of large organisations. Weber argued that Protestants regarded earning a living as a sacred duty and financial success as a sign of God’s grace. It was this belief, Weber said that led to self-control and regulation, thus Protestantism contribut ed to the rationalisation of everyday life (Hughes, Martin and Sharrock, 1995). For Weber, a major facet of the development of modern societies was the rationalisation of production. Rationalisation The concept of rationalisation, according to Weber (1967) was endemic to modern society, and it was to be found in all large organisations. Such organisations are tightly regulated and predictability and impersonality are their defining characteristics. The members of large organisations can become dehumanised, because with in it, social relations are defined purely in functional terms. Bureaucracy grew out of the increasing rationalisation, which, in modern society, affected all areas of life. As society continued in its rational progression then this would become evident in its social institutions which would, in turn, become more formal. This process would also lead to a decrease in people’s reliance on traditional beliefs, and an increase in the making of rational decisions that had a direct purpose.(Hughes, Martin and Sharrock, 1995). Weber believed that religion predisposed people to order their lives in terms of rational action and this meant that they earned more than they needed. Turner (1999) maintains that: This striving for world mastery did not lead however to a satisfaction with the meaningfulness of everyday life, but rather resulted in a continuing disenchantment with reality which drove out moral significance from everyday life (Turner, 1999:9). Religious and moral disenchantment, Weber contended, would be the end result of increasing bureaucratisation and the rationalisation of social relations. He termed the increasing rationalisation and bureaucratisation of western society as an ‘iron cage’ (Turner, 1999). The impact of western society on the rest of the world was due to its command of industrial resources and its superior military power (Giddens, 2001). Modern societies, in Weber’s view, were especially characterised by what he termed the development of rational/legal authority. Authority in Modern Society Weber believed that authority was invested in the state, the source of the nation state, he maintained was the pre-capitalist conflicts between absolutist rulers. Weber favoured capitalist democracies rather than socialism and believed that in order to maintain a balance in the amount of authority the state had, it was necessary to have a strong private sector. He also believed that increasing rationalisation and bureaucratisation would have a deleterious effect on democracy. Authority, he maintained was in the hands of certain types of individuals and thus he developed a theory of ideal types as a means of understanding the world. These should be seen as a reference point rather than having an existence in the real world (Giddens, 2001). Thus the type of society identified by Weber as modern society is identified most especially by the development of rationalisation and bureaucratisation. The ideal type is used to form an ideal picture of a shift occurring in society by reason of ce rtain historical factors (Weber, quoted in Brown, 1995 p. 271). Weber used the notion of ideal types to develop an understanding of the kinds of activities that can be assigned as features of empirical reality. Conclusion Weber’s work has been influential in sociology’s understanding of the defining features of modern society. Weber’s thinking on rationalisation and bureaucratisation have been a useful analytic tool for those attempting to understand modern societies. However, he has been criticised for being too determininistic. The rise of science, for example, has not completely taken over from religious belief as Weber predicted it would and his notion of bureaucratic organisations as iron cages neglects the fact the very often people will use bureaucracies to stem the tide of certain rules and regulations rather than be totally constricted within the organisation. Nevertheless Weber’s analysis continues to be a useful and fascinating analysis of the development of modern industrial societies. In addition to this his work on human choice and action were pivotal to the development symbolic interactionism and interpretative social research. Bibliography Brown, K 1995. Marx, Durkheim, Weber Formations of Modern Social Thought London, Sage. Giddens, A. 2001. Sociology. Cambridge, Polity Press. Hamilton, M 1995 Sociology of Religion London, Routledge Hughes, J. Martin, P. and Sharrock, W. 1995 Understanding Classical Sociology: Marx, Weber, Durkheim. Sage, London Turner, B. 1999. Classical Sociology. Sage.London Walsh, I ed. 2000 Sociology: Making Sense of Society. Edinburgh, Prentice Hall. Weber, M 1967 â€Å"The Social Psychology of World Religions† in Gerth, H and Wright-Mills , C. 1967 eds From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology New York, Oxford University Press pp.267-301 1 Footnotes [1] See Morrison page 220 [2] See Morrison page 213 [3] See Giddens page 673

The Modern Tragedy: Death Of A Salesman :: essays research papers

A Modern Tragedy   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A form of drama in which a person of superior intelligence and character is overcome by the very obstacles he/she is struggling to remove defines a tragedy as most people know it. However, tragedy can reflect another aspect of life: the tragedies of the common people. Heroic behavior in these instances may at times be impossible. We expect, from reading the first tragedies, that only kings or nobility can be tragic heroes. Arthur Miller himself said, â€Å"I believe that the common man is as apt a subject for tragedy in its highest sense as kings were†¦[The same characteristics] which were enacted by royal beings†¦apply to everyone in similar emotional situations.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Death of a Salesman can be defined as a tragedy, with Willy Loman as the tragic hero. Willy Loman has a tragic flaw characteristic of all tragic heroes, however, it is not â€Å"necessarily a weakness.† Willy has a lot of dignity, and he is unwilling â€Å"to remain passive in the face of what he conceives to be a challenge to his dignity, his image of his rightful status.† His tragic flaw leads to his demise.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A tragic hero begins with a purpose, falls on hard times, but, in the end, gains a better perception. This perfectly describes Willy. Willy’s initial purpose is to maintain his dignity by pretending in front of his family and not accepting a job that he believes would lower his position. He obviously falls on hard times: he loses his job, his sons are lazy bums, Biff is a thief, he constantly relives his mistakes, and Biff resents his dad because of something that happened years ago. All of these are evidence of the hard times he is having in his life. After a confrontation with Biff, which occurred because of Linda’s insistence, Willy gains a better perception of his life. Or, at least, he thinks he does. Willy believes that, by committing suicide, he can gain dignity in the eyes of his family. By doing this, they can live off the insurance money, and he will finally have been able to provide for them.

Lab Report Analysis

Memorandum TO: Emma Mackenzie, Writing Instructor; Montana Tech FROM: Sarah Hambidge, Montana Tech Student DATE: 6 November 2012 SUBJECT: Lab Report Analysis This memo proposes the observations and claims I collected from reviewing three different lab reports. Three fields of study are composed within this memo that includes Electrical Engineering, Environmental Engineering, and Petroleum Engineering. â€Å"Electrical Filters,† (Electrical), written by Joe Schmoe, is a lab report made by a student at a university.The College Board produced an environmental lab report named, â€Å"Monitoring Air Quality,† (Air), for the purpose of student education as a lab template. Monitoring Air Quality was written by Dr. Angela C. Morrow who graduated from the University of Northern Colorado. Within the Energy Engineering field, I found, â€Å"NETL Extreme Drilling Lab Studies high temperature drilling Phenomena. † (NETL). This lab was created by the U. S. Department of Energy and was found in the work of the U. S. Government. This lab report was written by K.David Lyons, Simone Honeygan, and Thomas Mroz. All three lab reports’ features have been compared and contrasted using analytical techniques in this memo. Observation of Whole Document All three documents are close in terms of length of paper. They are in the range between 6 and 9 pages long. The NETL Drilling High Pressure High Temperature Drilling Phenomena and Electrical Filters lab reports have 4 or 5 figures to represent the purpose of the lab report. The Air Quality lab only has one figure, a picture of a tree.College Board’s Monitoring Air Quality figures were labeled underneath the pictures in regular font. The petroleum lab report used bold lettering underneath the figures. The electrical report’s figures were labeled with italics underneath the picture as well. * Paragraph styles All three labs differ strongly when it comes to the style of how the paragraphs were writt en. Drilling lab reports within Petroleum Engineering are most elaborate and long. The petroleum lab report has 3 paragraphs in the Abstract section while the other two reports have one short paragraph.The Petroleum lab includes specific numerical details such as different depths, fluid pressures, and temperatures. The other reports did not include quantities inside the opening paragraph that is why Drilling labs are more elaborate and precise when it comes to representing information. As a reader is reading the NETL Drilling Lab, they could be more confused than reading the other two labs. The quantities are not explained how they are derived very well, so this could result in a comprehension problem for a basic reader.I think this would make a reader with basic comprehension levels frustrated. * Headings According to the example lab report(Doyoyo,2002), paragraph titles should follow this format in order of title page, Abstract, Experimental Procedure, Results, Discussion, Conclus ion, Appendices, and References. The lab report composed by the College Board follows this format most concisely. The College Boards paragraphs are titled Abstract, Objectives, Introduction, Materials, Procedure, Data/Observations, Analysis, and Additional Resources.The procedure in this report is quite long because it has 3 sub headings within it that precede three different subjects. The analysis goes quite in depth as well and has 2 different parts in it. The electrical lab report follows a similar paragraph order; Objective, Background, Experiment, Results, Conclusion, and References. The background paragraph is 2 pages long; this is longer than any of the other documents. I believe in order to completely comprehend this document, you would have to know a great deal of background and have expierence in this field.The petroleum drilling lab report also follows a different format; Abstract, Introduction, Acknowledgments, and References. TheNETL Drilling lab stands out from the res t of the labs too because between the introduction and acknowledgments, there are 4 paragraphs that explain descriptions, efforts, and future plans. This lab is farthest from following the standard lab report format. The NETL Drilling Lab was written by the government so they may follow a stricter lab format than they teach in schools. They might make up their own order of headings and paragraphs because they are on top of the chain. Font choice The NETL lab Report uses ten point font in Times New Roman. The Electrical Engineering lab Report uses Times New Roman as well but its double spaced and typed in twelve point font. The environmental lab uses Calibri with twelve point font and multiple spaces between every paragraph. The NETL lab is the most professional looking lab because it looks formal and fits more information within a page than the other labs. A reader could get the most information out of the NETL lab because it is constructed elaborately but also concisely. Overall to ne The NETL lab has by far, most formal tone of voice. The lab created by the College Board is built for mainly educational purposes; therefore it uses a smaller vocabulary for easier understanding. The Electrical lab report was made by students so it’s not that complex. The NETL lab is professional because it is a work of the government. This lab uses many big words, acronyms, references within text, and many numerical conversions. The lab written by students has the least informal tone, most likely because they are least educated.Reading the Electrical Filters Lab could leave a reader lost in some places, and readers may want to read a different lab on Electrical Filters written by a doctor or someone with a professional degree. * Repetition The College Board lab report uses repititon the most because it was created by doctors and doctors are very precise with representing information. It often repeats, â€Å"Please see AP’s licensing for AP Questions and Materials. † It also repeats, â€Å"Clean Air Act,† â€Å"NAAQS,† â€Å"gypsum,† and â€Å"air quality laws. † Within the procedure the paragraphs are repetitive as well.The Electrical lab is the least repetitive but it did repeat input and output signal values. The petroleum lab repeats drilling terms and the process of deep drilling. I think the repetition in all of the labs was necessary because a basic reader would need to be reminded of the information to smoothly flow through reading the documents. Sections The sections within the 3 lab reports differ in body. Some are more like Markel’s sample(Markel,2010) than others. * Abstract The petroleum lab and environmental reflect the major focus of the lab well.The abstract concisely communicates the purpose of the lab, the approach, the results, and the significances of the findings. The electrical lab doesn’t have an abstract but sometimes instructors do not require an abstract section. The en vironmental lab does a better job at writing the abstract because it’s shorter and more direct to the point, therefore easier to understand. * Introduction The petroleum lab does the worst at the introduction. Markel (Markel, 2010, ch10), says the purpose of the lab is clearly stated. The petroleum lab is sort of confusing.It says,† The purpose of this paper and industry projects [1-5] deep wells are defined as wells drilled for oil and gas having true vertical depth (TVD) greater than 15,000 feet (4572 meters. )† The electrical report is more to the point, for example, â€Å"The objective of this lab is to build and test a first order, low-pass filter with resistors and capacitors. † The Environmental lab’s purpose statement is, â€Å"At the end of this lab, you will be able to describe and discuss several air pollutants and methods for detecting them. The environmental lab is a lab template so it is written in a future tense format rather than pas t tense like the other labs. Conclusion In reading this memo, I hope you understand my findings an key points about the three lab reports I analyzed. Electrical Filters, by Joe Schomoe, was poorly written compared to the other lab reports. It did properly use its figures and the abstract section was written correctly. This document was hard to read because the background was very long and in depth. This document also was least appealing to the eye because the lack of professionalism.College Board’s Monitoring Air Quality overall did well as serving the major purpose as a lab template for students. However this lab needs more figures and pictures because it only has one figure. The College Board also followed Markel’s lab format the closest. The repetition used by this lab made the whole document flow more as reading. The NETL Extreme Drilling Laboratory Studies High Pressure High Temperature Drilling Phenomena, is the most professional and formal written document compa red to the other two labs.It did not follow the normal lab report format, but it contained many helpful figures and tables. This lab can be confusing because it is so complex, but most information and data can be obtained from reading this lab report. References * Doyoyo, September 19, 2002, 13. 014J/1. 052J â€Å"Helpful instructions on how to write a mechanics lab report. † * Markel, 2010 Chapters 6,7,9,10,18, Appendix B related to APA documentation * Unit 3 Topics Checklist * (Electrical)

Medicalization And Pharmaceuticalization By Scheper Hughes...

Medicalization and Pharmaceuticalization The â€Å"medicalization† of the Alto do Cruzeiro people and the â€Å"pharmaceuticalization† of the Vita patients enable a systematic and bureaucratically sanctioned control of these marginalized groups. These two concepts are as alike as they are different. Scheper-Hughes focuses on the â€Å"medicalization† of the working class in Alto do Cruzeiro. In her ethnography, medicalization is a tool of hegemony which brings forth a complicit and pacified workforce. Biehl’s â€Å"pharmaceuticalization† of the patients in the Vita asylum in the other hand is an exploitative moral technology that justifies and distances the familial/medical/political structure from bureaucratically organized deaths. Although the power structures and aims at play are different in these settings, medicalization and pharmaceuticalization both serve to abandon/pacify people without the locusts of power being morally and civilly held accountable. In Scheper-Hughes’s ethnography, â€Å"nervoso† is appropriated by medicine and transformed into an illness. Due to the biomedical model, this folk syndrome is made into a disease, through which its somatic symptoms can be medicated. Likewise, in Biehl’s ethnography, any symptom, whether it be somatic or psychological, is treated with pharmaceuticals. This enforcement of medicine is normalized and unquestioned because in both of these societies, although thirty years apart, biomedicalization is deeply entrenched. This is partly due to the